Radicalisation and violent extremism remain among the most persistent and destabilising threats to global peace and security. Despite the military defeat of the so-called Islamic State (ISIS), terrorist organisations around the world continue to attract recruits and inspire attacks.
According to Human Rights Watch, as of 2023, more than 40,000 foreigners accused of ISIS links “remain abandoned by their countries in camps and prisons in northeast Syria,” The Caspian Post reports citing EU Reporter.
The foreigners are held with the tacit or explicit consent of their countries of nationality. The report points out that some countries have revoked the citizenship of some of their nationals, leaving several stateless in violation of their right to a nationality. Many countries, particularly in Europe and Central Asia, face the dilemma of how to deal with citizens who joined extremist groups abroad - especially women and children.
While several nations have hesitated or declined to repatriate these individuals, Kazakhstan has taken a different approach - one that may offer insights for other governments dealing with this complex issue.
A difficult choice with global implications
In 2018, the Kazakh government a co-ordinated effort to repatriate its citizens from conflict zones in Syria and Iraq. This was a controversial decision. Critics questioned whether those who had voluntarily joined a terrorist organisation deserved to return.
Yet as the humanitarian situation in Syrian camps deteriorated, especially for women and children, the Kazakh government moved forward with the initiative. Over three years, through a series of humanitarian operations known as “Zhusan” and “Rusafa”, Kazakhstan repatriated 754 of its citizens - including 526 children.
Rather than treating all returnees with blanket suspicion or punishment, Kazakhstan implemented a tailored response based on individual circumstances. Individuals who committed crimes were prosecuted under national law, while women and children underwent structured rehabilitation and reintegration programs.
“Kazakhstan adopted a balanced and differentiated approach,” said Stanislav Vassilenko, Ambassador-at-Large at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan. “Returnees were held accountable where necessary, but the broader goal was to support their resocialisation and give them a second chance. As a well-known Kazakh proverb states, ‘The source of prosperity is in unity.’”
Building blocks of reintegration
Rehabilitation centres were set up in many regions of Kazakhstan, staffed with psychologists, legal advisors, religious scholars, and social workers. More than 250 specialists and practitioners throughout Kazakhstan studied provision of the psychosocial support, legal, and ethical issues arising from the reintegration process. These teams provided therapy, legal assistance, theological education, and vocational training adapted to individual backgrounds and levels of radicalisation. As a result, over 200 children accessed improved psychosocial and educational services.
Experts also piloted a ‘stories between generations’ approach to help engage repatriated citizens. This method aims to rebuild disrupted family and social connections while fostering a sense of identity and social responsibility. It encourages older generations to share their life experiences with younger ones through storytelling, helping to convey shared values and cultural knowledge.
The program also recognised that women and children returning from war zones are often victims as well as subjects of concern. Many women were coerced or misled into traveling to ISIS-controlled territories, and children frequently had no agency in the decisions made for them.
In collaboration with international organisations such as the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the UN Counter-Terrorism Office, Kazakhstan contributed to the development of methodologies to support the psychological and social rehabilitation of returnees. These materials contain guidance on helping repatriated families adjust to life in Kazakhstan. One such manual, prepared by the Public Foundation “AQNIET,” explores the trauma, motivations, and reintegration challenges of women who returned from Syria and Iraq
“We see each returnee not as a statistic, but as a human being,” said Sakentai Mukhamedzhanov, a representative of AQNIET. “Understanding their experiences and trauma is essential to breaking the cycle of radicalisation and reintegrating them into peaceful society.”
Reflections for the international community
Kazakhstan’s approach differs from that of many countries that have struggled to resolve the status of their citizens - particularly women and children - in camps such as al-Hol and Roj in Syria. These camps remain overcrowded and volatile, with limited access to education, healthcare, or rehabilitation services. Humanitarian organisations have raised concerns that the conditions could contribute to future instability.
Kazakhstan’s experience indicates that repatriation, if approached with clear legal frameworks and community-based support, may contribute to longer-term security and social cohesion.
Some international observers, including UN bodies, have acknowledged these efforts. Kazakhstan is among a small number of countries to have ratified all 19 UN counterterrorism legal instruments and participates in regional deradicalisation initiatives - including one in Tajikistan involving Kazakh-developed security tools for penitentiary systems.
In March of this year, Astana, Kazakhstan’s capital, hosted a Regional Expert Meeting on the prosecution of crimes related to foreign terrorist fighters. At the event, UNODC representatives noted Kazakhstan’s efforts as part of a broader conversation on effective practices in this area.
The role of civil society
Kazakhstan’s approach involved non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and civil society groups. More than 18 NGOs and public foundations form part of a national Consortium focused on countering extremism and supporting returnees.
These organisations provide reintegration support and promote media literacy and youth education to help reduce vulnerability to extremist messaging, especially online. In an era where radical ideologies often spread through digital platforms, such efforts play a preventative role.
“We have come to understand that traditional security responses, while necessary, are no longer sufficient. The only effective countermeasure to the ideological dimension of extremism is a resilient civil society - one capable of speaking to people in their language, within their spaces, and on their terms,” said Assolya Mirmanova, Deputy Chair of the Counterterrorism Committee.
Kazakhstan’s approach is not without its challenges. Reintegration is a long and delicate process. Some returnees may struggle to adapt. Others may face stigma from their communities. And there is always a residual risk of re-radicalisation. At the same time, alternatives-such as prolonged detention in deteriorating conditions, especially for children - raise serious humanitarian and legal concerns.
Kazakhstan’s experience is not a one-size-fits-all solution. What proves effective in Central Asia may require adaptation in other regional contexts. However, core elements - such as legal accountability, psychological support, community involvement, and international coordination - may offer useful insights to other governments.
As global policymakers continue to debate the fate of foreign terrorist fighters and their families, Kazakhstan’s approach offers a case study in how repatriation can contribute to broader stability and social reintegration.
